This is the fourth article in this series of ‘Misunderstandings of Marx’ prompted by statements I have come across during 2023. The first dealt with the mistake of assuming that Marx considered capitalism as the fundamental problem facing humanity. The second that Marx considered that the concept of a ‘socialist mode of production’ was the means of replacing the capitalist mode of production’. The third that Marx considered that the working classes should overthrow the capitalist state and create a socialist (or workers) state. This fourth article attempts to explain 1, why Marx has been so frequently misunderstood; 2, to provide further detail on the causes of the multiple alienations of humanity; and to 3, stress the uniqueness, (among all the species of life on earth) of the routine inter-species extermination of life forms and human beings by other human beings.

The individual versus the collective.

Misunderstandings of Marx arise, not only from the general neglect of the huge extent and detail of his published writing, but also because he is more famous for his unique forensic analysis of the capitalist mode of production, than for anything else. The three volumes of Das Capital, the three volumes of notes on Surplus Value and the series of notebooks known as the Grudrisse, are all devoted to understanding the functioning and purpose of societies based upon the domination of capital. This predominant focus on capitalism, by Marx, has given the impression to many people, (both those who agree with Marx and those who disagree), that he considered the capitalist mode of production as the fundamental cause of the problems facing the bulk of humanity. Whilst it is true that capitalism – as the latest form of hierarchical mass society – has accelerated production and amplified the problems of alienation and servitude facing humanity, Marx recognised that it is the hierarchical mass society form itself which is the fundamental problem. It is this form of society, which is not only a problem for humanity, but also for the rest of life on earth. With regard to the former, Marx noted that;

“The starting point of the development that gave rise to the wage labourer as well as the capitalist, was the servitude of the labourer.” (Marx Capital Vol 1, page 715.)

In other words Marx recognised that prior to the capitalist mode of production, society’s were hierarchical and divided into classes, in which large sections of humanity were forcibly bound to forms of ‘labour’ servitude, known as serfs, peasants or actual slaves. Therefore, the alienation of the bulk of humanity from their natural, species essence had occurred prior to the domination of capital and had coincided with the formation of hierarchical mass societies. Indeed, in a number of places and toward the end of what became volume 3 of Das Capital, extracted from Marx’s notes contained the following;

“We have seen that the capitalist process of production is a historically determined form of the social process of production in general. The latter is as much a process of material conditions of human life as a process taking place under specific historical and economic production relations, producing and reproducing these productive relations themselves, and thereby also the bearers of this process, their material conditions of existence and their mutual relations, ie., theirparticular socio-economic form. For the aggregate of these relations, in which the the agents of this production stand with respect to Nature and to one and another, and in which they produce, is precisely society, considered from the standpoint of its economic structure. Like all its predecessors, the capitalist process of production proceeds under definite material conditions, which are, however, simultaneously the bearers of definite social relations entered into in the process of reproducing their life.” (Capital. Volume 3, section 3, chapter XLV 111)

Whilst recognising that Volume 3 was assembled by Freidrich Engels, from Marx’s notes, the fact that this excerpt chimes accurately with many other such statements by Marx, means we can be assured it accurately portrays Marx’s assessment of previous hierarchical mass society forms. This needs to be mentioned because Engels did not always portray Marx accurately, a fact which has led some ‘Marxists’ in the tradition of Lenin, Stalin, Trotsky and Mao, to also misunderstand Marx’s revolutionary-humanist perspectives. The Capitalist process of production, “Like all its predecessors” maintains, alienating divisions of labour, class divisions, and gender inequalities and thus the need to exercise oppressive forms of control and manipulation.  Hierarchical mass societies, through the division of labour, certainly introduced the possibility and actuality of larger and larger human societies living together as economically viable collectives. However, hierarchical societies achieved this result only at the expense of introducing a rift between the socialised human individual and their natural species essence.

The extreme exploitation of nature and people became the normal operating procedure for hierarchical mass societies, from their ancient inception. The three forms of human alienation noted in ‘Misunderstanding Marx – 3’ (ie. from nature, from each other and from other human communities) are consequently the originating alienations of humanity from nature and thus the natural essence of the human species. These alienations have continued to exist. Ageism, Sexism, Misogyny, Racism and Sectarianism are all symptoms of alienation resulting from the denial of the natural/social essence of humanity and its replacement by individual competition within hierarchical mass society formations. In 1843, Marx duly noted this rift between the natural ‘species being’ evolution of humanity and the alienated ‘individual being’ within hierarchical mass societies. This recognition was almost two decades before his major forensic level of economic analysis in Das Capital. He had reasoned that;

“Only when the real, individual man re-absorbs in himself, the abstract citizen, and as an individual human being – has become a species being in his everyday life, in his particular work, and in his particular situation….only then will human emancipation have been accomplished.”(Marx. Collected Works Volume 3, page 168.)

The need for human beings in their everyday life to return to their earlier condition of acting and thinking for each other and for the the benefit of the collective (ie. acting as species beings) rather than acting and thinking purely for themselves (ie. acting as competitive individual beings), was the humanist motivation behind Marx’s life-long philosophic, economic and political endeavours. As previously mentioned, he correctly noted that by the creation of ‘divisions of labour’ within mass societies, the undoubted efficiency gained in total social production, had been offset by a varying degree of alienation and conflict arising directly and indirectly from those divisions. With the development of set divisions of labour, individual interests became the primary focus of individual existence and of day to day concern, within hierarchical mass societies. Gradually, therefore, the common interests of the whole society, (and the species) became subordinate to the concerns of the most powerful individuals. Where classes or socio-economic associations of individuals developed, the shared individual concerns within the various classes also became separated from the interests common to the whole community.

In this way, individual conflicts, class-based conflicts and national conflicts became the constantly abrasive interactions within and between hierarchical mass societies. By the perpetuation of this hierarchical social means of living, the human species became engaged in perpetual forms of conflict within their own social formation and with various other human communities. These conflicts are muted at times and flare up at others, but are never entirely absent. Thus, for example, the the interests of wealthy classes, to increase their wealth at the expense of the interests of the other classes, may be resented by the majority but may not flare up immediately into open conflict (slave revolts, peasant uprisings, general strikes, civil wars) until it reaches a certain explosive intensity. Furthermore, these internal group alliances within mass societies rarely cohere around a single policy idea or a single individual representing one, but around a cluster of personal interests and/or ruling factions, with one promoted from within them as a figurehead.

Thus, the interests of powerfully placed elite individuals within a ruling dynasty or faction desiring more wealth, power and control, (eg. Alexander, Xerses, Charlemagne, Hitler, Putin, Trump, Johnson etc.) can arrogantly drag a whole society into a war of attrition, or manufacture an economic depression. During such conflicts, the common interests of the majority and even the personal interests of the elite, are exponentially compromised and frequently totally sacrificed. It is also the case that many, if not most decisions taken by elites are not rationally based but result from their emotional reactions to the contradictions within hierarchical mass society. Furthermore, the relatively well off within hierarchical mass societies, can (and do) also wilfully ignore the reduced status and welfare of minority groups until these take action (such as peasants in previous modes of production, and now nurses, teachers, transport workers etc). These low status victims of the hierarchical mass society system are then hypocritically blamed and pilloried for frustrating or ignoring the personal or common interests of the the elite or the rest of society.

The actual and potential conflicts between the individual interests, the class interests, and the collective interests of humanity have been elevated exponentially by past and present hierarchical mass societies and are the underlying sources of personal struggles and anxieties as well as social and political ones. Mental health disturbances; forms of addiction; anti-social outbursts; incarceration and a scale of legal punishments, are the manifestations of these unresolved conflicts at an individual level. These exist alongside the collective manifestations of these same tensions and conflicts which also result in religious, political, gender, ethnic and identity struggles and the negative behaviours resulting from them. This particular form of hierarchical social evolution by humanity to maintain the pattern of Nourishment, Metabolism, Growth, Reproduction, Ageing and Death (N-M-G-R + A-D) has brought it into existential conflict with the natural, bio-chemical processes of evolution for all forms of life on earth – including it’s own.

Individual and collective inter-dependence.

Within the rest of life on earth it is also possible to distinguish between the individual and the collective in each species, and also to establish how these two interests among each species of life on earth are integrated, rather than being continually fought over. Each species individual is actually reproduced from within each species by the cooperation of other individuals. One generation begets another and the young either integrate socially or move elsewhere and if they find adequate resources they repeat the (N-M-G-R + A-D) process of all previous generations. Objectively, the individual could not exist without the existence of the collective and the collective could not function smoothly without the cooperation of the individuals. That is how life on earth in general and for all forms of life on earth, (from bacterial cells to schools of whales) has ‘naturally’ continued for the millions of years that it has existed. It is also how the hominid mammalian species functioned as they evolved into their modern Homo sapien, variants some hundreds of thousands of years ago. Marx acknowledged this pre-historical stage of human societies which alongside hierarchical mass societies, continues throughout all history before he moved on to analyse the capitalist form of social cooperation, noting that;.

“…life involves before everything else eating and drinking, a habitation, clothing and many other things…..Therefore, in any interpretation of history one has first of all to observe this fundamental fact in all its implications and to accord it it’s due importance…The production of life, both of ones own in labour and of fresh life in procreation, now appears as a double relationship: on the one hand as a natural, on the other as a social relationship. By social we understand the cooperation of several individuals, no matter under what conditions, in what manner and to what end. ” (Marx. ‘The German Ideology’. Section 1 History.)

The first part of this generalisation concerning life applies to all life forms and indeed since the 20th century we can now give due importance to the original natural and social, Nutrition, Metabolism, Growth, Reproduction, Ageing and Death (N-M-G-R + A-D) processes of life on earth. However, less than ten thousand years ago, what really began to negatively distinguish sections of the human species – from the rest of the ‘life on earth’ species – was not language, fire or tools, but the formation of hierarchical mass societies. Notably, along with these hierarchical formations, emerged a unique tendency and propensity for the human species to continually turn upon itself and ruthlessly destroy individuals and groups of it’s own species. No other species of life on earth has individual organisms routinely and deliberately harming or assassinating other members of their own species either in single events (murder), larger events (multiple homicides/massacres/school shootings etc.), or collectively in the mass assassinations and extinctions, known as wars and other types of genocidal incursions.

Although predatory species have evolved, which routinely engage in the killing of individuals from other species for nourishment (N) they do not do so to individuals of their own species, either for food or other reasons. Nor do they engage in mass cullings of prey animals, they just kill enough for survival. Even the well publicised animal conflicts between males for mating among the other species are discontinued well before life is extinguished for the losing animal. Simply backing off or moving away by one combatant ends such animal conflicts over mating. Moreover, there are no insect or animal equivalents of the so-called honour killings or the rapes and murder of females within any other of the millions of species of life on earth. Yet it is an indisputable statistical fact that a proportion of the so-called ‘civilised’ human species – within hierarchical mass societies – aggressively discriminate, hurt, oppress and enslave members of their own species (and other species) and fight and kill each other routinely, by wars and skirmishes for a variety of random reasons.

That contrast, between life on earth – outside of hierarchical mass society formations – and those within them, should give sufficient cause for most of us to stop, think and consider. Why has a species classifying itself as wise and claiming to have created ‘civilisation’ out of ‘barbarism’ actually created it’s own self-alienating and self-destructive tendencies and self-perpetuating cycles of killing it’s own kind? And, of course, along with that self-destruction, the routine and mechanized destruction of many other key, life-sustaining species, by deforestation, overfishing and pollution. Since such behaviours only emanate from within hierarchical mass society formations, the how and why is answered by studying the socialisation and normalisation processes contained within such societies. Beyond such research studies, in considering the future for life on earth, it becomes obvious that humans need to end hierarchical forms of mass society living, abandon their own self-indulgent, ego-centrism and change the focus of their concerns.

A revolution in thinking and behaving is needed.

Hitherto, ‘life on earth’ has always been studied from the perspective of a curious and/or acquisitive, wealth-seeking, section of humanity. The study of humanity from the perspective of ‘life on earth’ has hardly begun. I suggest this can be now be achieved relatively easily and needs to urgently begin – if there is to be any useful evolutionary future for humanity. Just as an individual organism is dependent upon the collective species for its bio-chemical and social existence, (for birth, support and reproduction), each individual species of life on earth, is dependent upon the collective conitributions of all the integrated species of life on earth – even the largest animal is dependent upon the smallest grain of pollen! It may appear to current anthropocentric, ideological reasoning that the future survival of nature ultimately depends upon humanity; but in reality it is the future survival of humanity which ultimately depends upon the survival of the integrated life support system of nature. Destroying that is an indirect form of self-destruction. Consequently a revolution in how humanity thinks needs to accompany a revolution in how humanity lives.

It is undoubtedly the case that, all mass societies require mass production and mass consumption of (N) and these in turn create mass pollution and massive disturbances of the organic and inorganic structure of the planet. The ‘green’ agenda of obtaining and using so-called ‘cleaner’ energy sources will not break this self-destructive anthropocentric cycle of production and consumption. Indeed, the creation of a source of cheaper and cleaner energy would only spur on the productive dynamic of elite-led hierarchical mass societies to even greater intensities and increase rubbish accumulation, contamination and pollution. The potential knock on effect is obvious. With increases in production and consumption – whatever the energy source – there will be increased global warming, further sea temperature rises, more forest fires and even more air-born industrial pollution. Therefore, there is a present and future danger of insufficient clean and clear air around the planet.

Without sufficient clear air, there will not only be breathing problems for all us animals with lungs, but but also insufficient sunlight; without sufficient solar radiation, there will be insufficient photosynthesis by land and sea plants.
Without sufficient photosynthesis by ‘healthy’ land and sea plants, insufficient oxygen-absorbed air and plant nutrition will be available for insects and animals to Metabolise, Grow and Reproduce. Without sufficient insects and many animals, very little plant pollination will occur, without sufficient plant pollination there will be even less nutrition (N) available and even less production of oxygen. Hierarchical mass society humanity is already on a decades long downward trajectory! Therefore, a few thousand factory air filters and millions of home insulations are not going to prevent such an outcome. At least one past huge extinction (dinosaurs) has been put down to a heavily contaminated atmosphere preventing sufficient land and sea based plant photosynthesis.

Moreover, the collapse of an integrated, and interdependent circle (or cycle) of anything can begin at any point in the circle. In the case of life on earth a serious and continual disruption – within any key species – and within any of the natural, Nourishment, Metabolic, Growth, Reproductive, Ageing and Death phases (N-M-G-R + A-D), which are common to all forms of life on earth, and the outcome is predictable. Sooner or later this disruption and distortion of life on earth will trigger a catastrophic extinction event.

Roy Ratcliffe (June 2023)